When Translating an Abraviation You Do Not Know

What this handout is about

In your college career, you lot will see the abbreviations e.m. and i.e. E.g. is a Latin abbreviation that ways "for example" and often appears before lists. I.e. is some other Latin abbreviation that means "in other words," "namely," or "which is to say." Use e.g. when introducing a non-exhaustive list of examples and i.e. when rephrasing the exact same idea in dissimilar words. The rest of this handout explains these and many other Latin abbreviations you might see, such every bit etc., N.B, cf., sic, versus, circa, et al., ibid. and id., and more.

Near Latin terms and abbreviations

Despite the fact that Latin is no longer the international language of scholars, bits and pieces of information technology can withal exist constitute scattered effectually. Some of these bits are very common and are even seen in non-academic writing, while others are much more than obscure.

Simply knowing what an abbreviation stands for and how to interpret the underlying Latin words does not necessarily tell you how the abridgement is used in actual modern practice. These lilliputian remnants of Latin have had a long and colorful life separated from their original language and context.

There are a few generally accepted rules that utilize to most Latin abbreviations. The major style manuals (MLA, APA and Chicago) agree that Latin abbreviations should be kept out of the chief trunk of a text-that is, they should not announced in ordinary sentences inside ordinary paragraphs. Certain abbreviations may be used in parentheses within the body of a text (etc., due east.g., i.e.), simply the rest should appear merely in footnotes, endnotes, tables, and other forms of documentation. One notable exception: APA mode allows writers to utilise the abridgement et al. when discussing works with multiple authors and five. in the titles of court cases.

Except for Northward.B., none of the abbreviations we're virtually to discuss need to exist italicized or capitalized.

Why should you bother learning about Latin abbreviations?

While it's perfectly acceptable to use English language phrases instead of Latin abbreviations, there'due south a reason why these abbreviations accept survived and continue to be used today: they incorporate a lot of significant in a very small package. It takes less time and fewer characters to write e.g. than "for instance." As an added bonus, using Latin abbreviations correctly tin can make your writing sound more sophisticated and scholarly.

Fifty-fifty if you decide that yous don't want to use Latin abbreviations in your own writing, yous're still going to meet them in other texts. Knowing what these abbreviations hateful and how they are used is crucial to understanding and interpreting these works.

The big iii: etc., i.e., and e.grand.

The boilerplate person could go through life never having to worry nigh about Latin abbreviations, but there are iii that have become then widespread that they're incommunicable to avoid: etc., i.e. and e.g. These are as well the almost frequently misused Latin abbreviations. Let's take a expect at each of them, what they hateful and how they can be used.

etc.

The abbreviation etc. stands for et cetera, which translates literally as "and others" or "and the residuum." A more useful translation that can exist substituted for etc. (peculiarly when reading aloud) is "and so on." It is used at the end of a list to indicate that at that place are more elements to the list that are existence left out so that the list doesn't become as well long. For example:

All of the objects in our solar organization (planets, comets, etc.) orbit the sun.

Many other examples could exist included in a list of objects in our solar organization (like asteroids and moons), but information technology would accept too much infinite and time to list them all. Also, listing them all wouldn't add together much to the sentence-readers don't demand to know the identity of every object orbiting the lord's day in gild to sympathize the sentence.

In lists where you use etc., be sure all the listed items are of the aforementioned kind. If you wrote the following sentence, your readers might have a hard time telling what "etc." is substituting for because some of the items listed are objects, while others are people or activities:

I'm very interested in astronomy—planets, stargazing, Carl Sagan, etc.

When etc. is used at the end of a list, it should be preceded by a comma just like the other elements of the list. Information technology should never have the word "and" before it: the Latin discussion et has already got that covered.

e.thou. and i.e.

These are the two most often misused and confused Latin abbreviations-and for skilful reason. In whatever given judgement, it's ofttimes non immediately clear how i.e. and e.g. are different. Both appear inside parentheses and offer extra data that helps explain what's come before. In that location is, notwithstanding, a very important and useful deviation between these two abbreviations.

The abbreviation east.1000. stands for exempli gratia, which translates literally as "for the sake of an example"-but you can really just cut out the stuff in the centre and read it equally "for example." It is used to requite an example or fix of examples to help clarify the preceding thought. In full general, if you lot apply e.g., y'all should provide 1 or two short examples. More than can be used, but but if they are simple and can be expressed in a unmarried word or short phrase. It isn't necessary to apply etc. at the end of a list following east.m.; information technology'due south understood that there are more examples than those that you've given. You should not list all of the possible examples.

The abridgement i.due east. stands for id est, which translates literally every bit "that is." Sometimes information technology might be more useful, however, to translate it as "what that means is" or "that is to say." This abbreviation is used to clarify the preceding thought by restating it more simply or in different terms. Strictly speaking, what follows i.due east. in parentheses should exist equivalent to what comes before-you should be able to switch them without changing the pregnant of the sentence. If this involves making a listing, y'all should include all of the elements that make up that list. It might exist useful to think of i.east. as representing an equal sign (=). This will help you call up that i.e. stands for a strict equivalence.

Permit's look at some examples of how to use i.due east. and e.g. correctly:

Aye: The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury) are closest to our sunday.

NO: The rocky planets (i.due east., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

Mercury is not equivalent to the rocky planets-they're not the same thing. Mercury is just ane example of a rocky planet, therefore eastward.g. is advisable.

YES: The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are closest to our lord's day.

YES: Mercury, Venus, World and Mars (i.east., the rocky planets) are closest to our lord's day.

NO: The rocky planets (due east.thousand., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are closest to our sun.

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are all of the examples of rocky planets in our solar system (they are a full and consummate list, not just a few examples), and so e.grand. should non be used. Instead, use i.due east. to show that the listing of four planets is equivalent to the rocky planets-they refer to the same thing. Notice that switching the rocky planets and Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars doesn't change the pregnant of the judgement.

In some instances, i.eastward. and eastward.g. may both exist adequate, but using ane or the other will drastically change the meaning of the judgement. For instance:

Farmer Brown sells his produce (e.grand., apples, oranges, carrots) at the marketplace.

Farmer Brown sells his produce (i.e., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market place.

In the commencement sentence, the utilise of due east.g. tells the reader that Farmer Brown sells many dissimilar types of produce, including apples oranges and carrots. The information contained in the parentheses provides a few examples to assistance clarify the meaning of produce. In the 2nd sentence, the utilise of i.e. tells the reader that Farmer Brownish sells merely apples, oranges and carrots -nothing else. The information contained in the parentheses tells the reader that, as far as Farmer Brown is concerned, apples, oranges and carrots are what found produce-they are equivalent.

Other useful abbreviations

While etc., e.g. and i.due east. are peradventure the near of import Latin abbreviations for you to get acquainted with, there are other less common abbreviations that you may notice useful in certain situations.

North.B.

The abridgement N.B. stands for nota bene, which literally translates equally "note well," although in practice you can read information technology equally "pay attention." It is used in endnotes or footnotes to call the reader's attention to a especially important slice of information-such as a key assumption of or exception to an statement-that is nevertheless not crucial enough to be included in the main body of the paper. Also, notice that N.B. is the only Latin abbreviation that should be capitalized.

Example: N.B.: While all of the study participants were interviewed virtually their prior medical histories, researchers did non have access to their medical records to confirm the accuracy of self-reported data.

cf.

The abbreviation cf. stands for the Latin word confer which ways "compare." It is primarily used in endnotes or footnotes to point readers to works that the author recommends referencing in comparison with the work at hand. Therefore, it might be more useful to read cf. every bit "but compare this to." It is generally preceded by citations of works that are sources for the writer'due south argument so followed by one or ii examples of works that somehow differ from or depart from the argument. Although information technology is non strictly necessary to explain how these works are unlike, you lot might detect information technology useful to include a short phrase for the benefit of your reader.

Example: ii. Jones 1992, Smith 2003; cf. on methodology Harris 2005.

sic

Although information technology is not an abridgement, sic is included here because it is ane of the more frequently used Latin terms. The word sic means "thus" or "so" and is used in quotations to bespeak that whatsoever strange aspects of a piece of text, such as errors in of grammar, spelling, or word choice, are part of the original text and non a typo. Therefore, it could be more appropriately translated as "yes, that's actually what information technology says." Depending on the style you're using, sic is italicized and placed in brackets after the word or phrase it identifies (equally in APA and Chicago), or it is simply placed in parentheses after the unabridged quote (as in MLA). Consult the nearly recent edition of the advisable style handbook to ensure that you're using the proper format.

versus (vs. or 5.)

You have probably seen the term versus or one of its abridgement, vs. or v., in the names of court cases (for example, "Smith 5. the State of North Carolina"). Versus translates every bit "against" or "equally opposed to." Versus is used to express conflict or comparing. You may meet information technology in the main body of academic texts, in phrases such equally "man versus nature," "measured in kilograms versus pounds," or "protectionism versus free trade." Versus and its abbreviations also appear frequently in the titles of books and articles.

circa

Circa, which translates as "around" or "approximately," usually appears with dates. You may see it abbreviated as c. or ca. (or, more than rarely, equally cca. or cir.). Information technology indicates that a number or value is judge, not verbal. For example, yous might see sentences like "the structure of Stonehenge began circa 3000 BCE." More than rarely, you may see circa in reference to measurements of amounts, such as "circa $45,000" or "c. i.5 mL." Your significant will often be clearer to readers if you stick with English in the primary body of your text and salvage "c." for things in parentheses and notes. So, for example, you might write "the structure of Stonehenge began effectually 3000 BCE" or "when Stonehenge began to be synthetic (c. 3000 BCE)."

Citation shortcuts

The abbreviations in this department are used primarily in notes and bibliographic entries in order to save space. It is important to understand these abbreviations not only so that y'all can correctly interpret bibliographic citations, but likewise and so that your citations can exist accessible to your readers.

et al.

The Latin abbreviation et al. stands for et alii which translates every bit "and other people." It is like etc., but it is used merely for people. Yous will mostly encounter et al. used in bibliographical entries for books, articles, or other publications that have several authors (normally four or more than) in order to salve infinite. In such cases, the proper noun of the kickoff author volition exist given in total and then followed by et al. As with etc., there is no demand to include 'and' earlier et al., but do notice that unlike etc. there is a infinite (and no menses) later on et in this abbreviation.

ibid. and id.

The abbreviation ibid. stands for the Latin give-and-take ibidem, which means "in the same place." It is used in endnotes or footnotes when you cite the same source and folio number(s) 2 or more times. If you cite the same source but a different page number, you tin can utilise ibid. followed by a comma and the page number(south). Also, note that ibid. is capitalized when information technology begins a note. For example:

one. Barsby, 99-101.
two. Ibid.
iii. Ibid., 97.

Although it is condign less mutual, you may see the abbreviation id. used in a fashion similar to ibid. The abbreviation id. stands for idem, which ways "the same person." Information technology is used in place of ibid. when the same author is cited merely not the same folio number. In such instances, ibid. is simply used to repeat the preceding citation exactly. For example:

1. Barsby, 99-101.
2. Ibid.
iii. Id., 97.

passim

Like sic, passim is non an abridgement, but information technology is included here as a Latin term commonly used to salvage infinite in bibliographic entries. The Latin word passim ways "here and there" or "throughout." Information technology is used when a particular word, phrase or idea is not restricted to just a few pages of a work, simply occurs in many different places. Using passim is not a way to avoid providing specific citations—instead, it indicates to the reader that the information being cited occurs frequently in the work and that he/she may want to employ the tabular array of contents or index to discover specific examples.

Abridgement obscurity

While you may occasionally see the following abbreviations in your academic career, they are condign increasingly rare. In that location is no need for you to attempt to incorporate them into your ain writing. Instead, use short English language phrases; information technology will exist easier for you to write and for your reader to understand!

loc. cit. and op. cit.

The abbreviations loc. cit. and op. cit. are old forms used in bibliographic citations similar to ibid. and id. above. The abridgement loc. cit. stands for loco citato, which translates as "in the place cited," whereas op. cit. stands for opere citato which translates every bit "in the piece of work cited." Generally, loc. cit. is used to refer to the same work and folio number(s) as the previous citation, while op. cit. refers merely to the same work and may or may non exist followed by page numbers. In all mod way manuals, ibid. is preferred to loc. cit. and op. cit.

inf. and sup.

The abbreviations inf. and sup. stand for the words infra and supra, which translate equally "beneath" and "above" respectively. They are used to betoken that information will be more fully explained or cited elsewhere. If the information has already appeared in an before note, sup. is used. If the data will appear in a later note (where a more complete citation or explanation is perhaps more advisable), inf. is used. In full general, you can supervene upon both of these abbreviations with "come across below" and "encounter to a higher place" without whatsoever modify in significant.

viz. and sc.

The abridgement viz. stands for the Latin contraction videlicet which translates literally as "it is permitted to see," but a more useful translation is "namely" or "that is to say." It is used to clarify something by elaborating on it, giving a detailed description of it, or providing a complete list. In this sense, viz. is similar to i.e., although viz. tends to emphasize the precision and carefulness of what follows and is thus a stronger version of i.e. It is more often than not acceptable to use i.due east. instead of viz.

The similar abbreviation sc. stands for the Latin contraction scilicet which translates literally as "information technology is permitted to know," but a more than useful translation is "namely" or "as if to say." Information technology is frequently used to provide a clarification, remove an ambiguity, or supply an omitted word. Similar viz., sc. is a more specific version of i.e. and stresses the clarity of what follows. As with viz., it is generally acceptable to utilise i.e. rather than sc.

q.v.

The abbreviation q.five. stands for quod vide, which translates literally as "which see," although in practise it means something more like "for which see elsewhere." Information technology is used in notes afterward a discussion or phrase to indicate that more information tin can be constitute about the topic somewhere else in the current piece of work. Because q.v. is generally used in reference books or similar works, page numbers are not included subsequently it. The reader is expected to know how to locate this information without farther assistance. Since at that place is always the possibility that the reader won't be able to notice the information cited by q.v., it'southward better to use a uncomplicated English language phrase such as "for more on this topic, see pages 72-iii" or "a detailed definition appears on folio 16." Such phrases are immediately comprehensible to the reader (who may not even know what q.5. ways) and remove any ambivalence near where additional information is located.

s.v.

The abbreviation s.v. stands for sub verbo, which translates as "under the give-and-take." It is used when citing a specific entry in a lexicon or encyclopedia. The give-and-take or phrase following the abridgement should correspond exactly to the heading in the dictionary or encyclopedia so that the reader can find the precise entry being indicated. Since s.v. is no longer recognizable to most mod readers, it is ameliorate to apply a unproblematic English phrase such equally "see the Oxford English Dictionary; look under grape" or something similar.

We hope that this handout will exist useful to you as y'all decipher the Latin terms and abbreviations in your reading and perhaps begin to use them in your own writing!

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